A critical review about phytoremediation of heavy metals and radionuclides: from mechanisms to post-remediation strategies

Phytoremediation has emerged as an environmentally friendly and cost-effective solution for mitigating heavy metal and radionuclide contamination in soil and water. While extensive research has been conducted on phytoremediation mechanisms and the effectiveness of various plant species in pollutant uptake, limited attention has been given to the crucial aspect of post-remediation biomass management, particularly for biomass containing heavy metals and radionuclides. This review provides a pioneering perspective by integrating phy toremediation mechanisms with a comprehensive discussion of post-remediation biomass treatment methods, such as incineration, solidification, gasification, and pyrolysis, which are essential for reducing environmental risks. This study’s output highlights that solidification is more suitable for radioactive biomass management for safe long-term storage and sustainable radioactive waste management; however, it does not produce value-added products. Meanwhile, gasification offers relatively low-emission biomass treatment compared to incineration and enables superior energy conversion efficiency and lower costs on a large scale compared to pyrolysis. The f indings contribute to improving the overall efficiency of phytoremediation and provide insights into post- remediation biomass handling methods, reinforcing the feasibility of phytoremediation as a sustainable large- scale remediation solution. By identifying research gaps and proposing future directions to enhance the sus tainability of phytoremediation, this review serves as an advantageous reference for policymakers, researchers, and environmental practitioners in designing effective phytoremediation strategies and post-remediation biomass management policies.